![]() For occupational titles, the use of -ess has been almost completely replaced by recently formed gender-neutral compounds such as flight attendant and letter carrier or by the -er/-or forms. By comparison, sculptress seems to be marked for gender, implying that the task of sculpting differs as performed by women and men or even that the task should typically be performed by a man. For example, the -or ending on sculptor seems neutral or unmarked. The heart of the problem lies in the nonparallel use of terms to designate men and women. ![]() Usage Note: Many critics have argued that there are sexist connotations in the use of the suffix -ess to indicate a female in words like sculptress, waitress, stewardess, and actress. On rare occasions the suffix -ee has been applied to noun forms, giving us words like benefactee (from benefactor) and to transitive verbs, where the suffix denotes the agent, such as attendee. Many others, such as firee (one who is fired from a job), invitee, jokee, and roastee (one who is ridiculed at a roast), are created ad hoc and often have a comic effect. A number of these coinages, such as honoree, deportee, and escapee, have become widely accepted. The coining of new words ending in -ee continues to be common. Beginning around the mid-19th century, primarily in American English, it was often extended to denote the agent or subject of an intransitive verb, as in standee and returnee. Usage Note: Reflecting its origins in the French passive participle ending - (feminine -e), the suffix -ee was first used in English to refer to indirect objects and then to direct objects of transitive verbs, particularly in legal contexts (as in donee, lessee, or trustee) and in military and political jargon ( draftee, trainee, or nominee).
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